Scots pine: photo and description

Common Pine is the second most widespread coniferous crop in the world, second only to Common Juniper. It is often called European, but special editions emphasize that this is wrong. The range of the Common Pine is extensive, and covers Eurasia from the Arctic to almost the tropics.

Scots pine description

Common pine (Pinus Sylvestris) is a single-stemmed coniferous tree belonging to the genus Pine (Pinus) of the Pine family (Pinaceae). It is of great importance as a forest-forming species; it is planted where it is necessary to stop soil erosion. It is a valuable ornamental crop, variable and easy to select.

The first detailed description was given by Karl Linnaeus in 1753.

What does Scotch pine look like?

Scots pine's appearance changes with age. In youth, its crown is conical to broadly oval, then it becomes like an umbrella. The culture grows very quickly, adding 30 cm or more per year. By the age of 10, the height of the Scots pine is about 4 m.

Mature trees, as a rule, reach 25-40 m. The size of Scots pine depends on the region. For example, the tallest specimens that have crossed the 46 m mark are most often found on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea.

Scots pine trunk reaches 50-120 cm in girth. Under ideal conditions it is straight, but curved specimens are often found in nature. This is due to the defeat of the culture by the bud shoot (Evetria turionana), in Scots pine plants, causing deformation of the main conductor, making it nodular.

The bark on young shoots is orange, scaly, becomes reddish-rusty with age. The trunk is gray-brown, covered with deep cracks. On the main conductor, the cortex forms thick plates of various sizes and shapes. It is she who, processed and sorted into fractions, is sold in garden centers as mulch.

Young shoots are green, but by the end of the season they become gray, and in the second spring they acquire a brown tint. The branches are at first arranged rhythmically, whorled, in mature pines they are uneven.

The crown crowns the top of the tree, sometimes a single branch far removed from the trunk remains at the bottom of an adult specimen. This is due to the fact that old shoots begin to die off as soon as they overlap with young ones, and are deprived of access to light.

The needles are grayish-green, but can have a color from dark green to grayish-blue, and in winter they sometimes change color to yellowish-green. Stiff needles are slightly curved, collected in 2 pieces, reaching a length of 4-7 cm, a width of 2 mm. They have a serrated edge and clearly visible stomatal lines. Needles live 2-4 years. In subarctic regions, it can last up to 9 years.

It is noteworthy that on young, vigorously growing specimens, the needles can be almost 2 times longer, and sometimes they are grouped in 3-4 pieces. In seedlings, up to a year, the needles are single.

All species belonging to the genus Pine are monoecious. That is, male and female flowers open on the same plant. The Scots pine cycle is 20 months, this is how much time passes between pollination in April-May and the ripening of cones in winter.

They grow singly, are rarely collected in 2-3 pieces, have a grayish-brown color and a matte surface. The shape of the pine cones is elongated-ovoid with a pointed tip, the length is up to 7.5 cm. They ripen in late autumn or early winter, open next spring, drop small (4-5 mm) black seeds, and soon fall off.

The root of the culture is pivotal, powerful, goes deep into the ground. Species trees live for 150-350 years, but 700-year-old specimens are registered in Sweden and Norway.

Scots pine species signs

If we summarize the features of the Common Pine as a species, the following features should be highlighted:

1. The culture is a light-loving plant, resistant to frost and drought, forming a powerful vertical root. It goes deep into the ground and makes the Common Pine one of the main forest-forming species in Europe and North Asia, up to the Amur region.
2. Species trees have a straight, high trunk, which is bent due to damage by a specific pest - a silkworm bud shoot.
3. The crown of the Common Pine most often has an irregular umbellate shape, located at the top of the main shoot. The rest of the trunk remains bare, as the lower branches die off as the tree grows.
4. The old bark flakes off in thick plates of various shapes and sizes.
5. The needles are collected in 2 pieces, grayish-green.
6. The culture is considered frost-hardy, depending on the variety, which will be discussed below, it winters in zones 1-4.
7. Trees of this species are among the fastest growing, adding 30 cm or more annually under favorable conditions.

Where does Scotch pine grow

Quite often, the Common Pine is called European. But it grows on a vast territory stretching between Eastern Siberia, Portugal, the Caucasus and the Arctic Circle, Mongolia, Turkey. Common Pine is naturalized in Canada, where it thrives.

In nature, the culture forms pure pine forests, but it can grow together with oak, birch, aspen, spruce. Depending on the subspecies and form, the Common Pine grows from 0 to 2600 m above sea level.

Scots pine species

Since the range of the Common Pine is extensive, within the species there are about 100 subspecies, forms, ecotypes characteristic of a certain area (not to be confused with varieties). But they are only of interest to biologists. In appearance, the variations of the Common Pine are not very different from each other. The difference is revealed only by genetic analysis or the study of the composition of the resin. It is unlikely that this is interesting for amateur gardeners.

There are three broad variations in culture:

1. Pinus Sylvestris var. Hamata or Hamata... The most thermophilic, winters in zone 6, grows in the Balkans, the Caucasus, Crimea, Turkey. It climbs to an altitude of 2600 m. It differs from other varieties in the chemical composition of the resin. The needles do not fade in winter, rather green with a bluish rather than gray tint.
2. Pinus Sylvestris var. Mongolica or Mongolian... It grows in Siberia, Transbaikalia, Mongolia and the northwestern regions of China at an altitude of up to 2 thousand m. Differs in dull long (up to 12 cm) needles, which tend to become yellowish by winter.
3. Pinus Sylvestris var. Lapponica or Laponica... It is from this subspecies that most European varieties are obtained. The main part of the range falls on Europe and extends to Central Siberia. Differs in short tough needles.

Many varieties have been obtained from Ordinary Pine. They can be very different in appearance.There are columnar, shrub and dwarf varieties, needles are silvery-gray, bluish-green, milky-yellowish, yellow.

Some of them are quite unusual and very different from the species tree. These are the varieties included in the selection.

Scotch pine Fastigata

Pinus sylvestris Fastigiata in culture since 1856. Column-shaped trees have been found in Finland, Norway and France, brought to the level of a variety by selection. This Scotch pine is distinguished by an even, straight crown with branches directed upwards, pressed against each other.

It grows rapidly, increasing by about 30 cm per season. By the age of 10 it reaches 4 m. For an adult pine, a height of 15 m or more is characteristic.

The needles are bluish-green, the cones are smaller than those of the original species. Hardiness zone - 3. Prefers a sunny place of planting.

Scotch pine Fastigata requires careful maintenance. With age, she can bare the trunk and branches, become untidy. Its crown must be "corrected", preventive treatments against pests and diseases must be carried out so that the needles do not fall off prematurely.

Scots pine Globoza Virdis

Pinus sylvestris Globosa Viridis - a widespread variety, known since 1900. Dwarf form with short, dense, tough branches hanging down to the ground. It gives an annual growth of 2.5 to 15 cm. At the age of 10, the height is no more than 1-1.5 m, it can be significantly lower. The size depends on the growing conditions as well as the nursery. Scots pine is a versatile species, and if the growers are engaged in their own selection, this affects the height of the tree.

At a young age, the Scots pine Globoza Virdis forms an almost round, often asymmetrical crown. With age, it becomes pyramidal.

Dark green tough needles about 10 cm, can be rounded to half the length. It takes on a yellowish tint for the winter. At the end of summer, young short needles often appear, covering the cones.

Prefers a sunny position, undemanding to soil. Hibernates in zone 5.

Scotch pine Vatereri

Pinus sylvestris Watereri - a dwarf variety that grows slowly and annually adds about 5-10 cm or a little more. Found in 1965 by Anthony Vaterer in Knap Hill nursery.

By the age of 10 it reaches 1-1.2 m. The height of an adult tree, according to some sources, is up to 7.5 m, according to others - 4-5 m. In any case, this is a modest size for Scots pine.

In youth, the crown is shirokokonicheskaya, then it becomes rounded due to the outwardly directed branches and the ends of the shoots raised upward.

Bluish-gray, thin twisted needles are short - no more than 4 cm. The variety lives for a long time, the first specimen left for collecting seeds and growing seedlings of Scotch pine can still be seen in Knap Hill nursery. Hibernates in the fourth zone.

Scots pine Hillside Creeper

Pinus sylvestris Hillside Creeper - a variety obtained from the elfin tree. Found 1970 by Lane Zigenfuss at Hillside Kennel, Pennsylvania.

A fast-growing variety, adding 20-30 cm per season. But, due to the nature of the spread of shoots, in width, not height. By the age of 10, the Scots pine rises 30 cm above the soil surface with a crown diameter of 2-3 m. An adult plant covers a much larger area.

The branches are loose and weak, fragile. The needles are dense, gray-green, in cold climates or at negative temperatures in the south, they acquire a yellowish tint. It hibernates in zone 3, with light cover or sufficient snow cover it feels good in the second.

Scots pine Aurea

Pinus sylvestris Aurea - an old variety, cultivated since 1876. It is a squat shrub with a rounded crown.She can, independently or with the help of the owners, acquire the shape of a vertical oval or a regular cone.

Before planting the common pine Aurea at the dacha, it should be remembered that it grows rapidly, adding about 30 cm per season, by 10 years it will stretch by 2.5-4 m.This difference is due to the different conditions in which the tree lives, as well as the nursery. They seek to reproduce the slowest growing specimens, thereby participating in selection. And the Scots pine is extremely variable and lends itself well to selection.

The main advantage of the Aurea variety is the color of the needles. The young have a yellow-green color, and in winter they turn golden yellow.

Scots pine Aurea grows well only in full sun. With a lack of light, the color will fade, but this can somehow be survived. But if the needles begin to crumble, it will take several seasons to restore the decorative effect, and the tree will have to be replanted.

The common pine Aurea overwinters in zone 3 without shelter.

Scots pine growing conditions

Planting and caring for Scots pine is not difficult, but it is not resistant to air pollution. Amateur gardeners cannot influence this factor, but they want to get the crop on the site. This means that you need to pay more attention to the other requirements of Scots pine.

She prefers a sunny open place, even in her youth she cannot stand light shading. It develops best on sandy soils that are not prone to sticking and compaction, withstands wind well.

What not a single variety of ordinary pine, and species trees, too, will tolerate, is the close standing of groundwater. A large drainage layer during planting may not be enough. In such areas, pine is planted on the terrace, an embankment is built, or water drainage measures are carried out. Otherwise, culture will have to be abandoned - its root is pivotal, it goes deep.

Scots pine planting

Scots pine is planted in the spring in the northern regions. Then the culture, before the onset of cold weather, manages to take root well, and is able to survive the winter.

Scots pine is planted in autumn in warm and hot climates. Our heat often comes suddenly, when the culture has not even begun to take root. The seedling can easily die only due to the high temperature.

Container plants are planted throughout the season. But in the south in the summer, it is better not to carry out the operation.

Preparation of planting material

Pine trees should be purchased in containers or with a burlap-lined earthen lump. In any case, the root system must be closed.

Scotch pine can be brought from the nearest forest. If the tree was dug out without an earthen coma, and was not tied in place with a damp cloth, the root is immediately soaked in a stimulant, for example, root or heteroauxin. There it should be at least 3 hours, and up to the very landing.

It is believed that after digging in the forest, an open-rooted Scots pine should be planted within 15 minutes. Of course, this is impossible, but it's worth the hurry. A delay of even 1-2 hours will be fatal for the plant.

Instances grown in containers are watered on the eve of planting.

Landing site preparation

A pit for ordinary pine must be prepared no later than 2 weeks before planting. The closer the groundwater approaches the surface, the thicker the drainage layer should be. In any case, it is not made less than 20 cm.

The depth of the planting pit for standard seedlings (not large-sized ones) should be approximately 70 cm, diameter - the width of the container or earthy coma, multiplied by 1.5-2.More deepening can be done, less is undesirable.

It is necessary to completely change the land only in saline areas. The mixture is made up of turfy soil, sand, clay. If necessary, add 200-300 g of lime to the planting pit. The starting fertilizer for pines is usually not applied.

First, drainage is poured onto the bottom of the pit, then the substrate, not reaching the edge of about 15 cm. The free volume is filled with water until it ceases to be absorbed.

Landing rules

Scots pine is planted no earlier than 2 weeks after the preparation of the pit. It is done in the following sequence:

1. Part of the soil is taken out of the pit with a shovel and laid aside.
2. If necessary, a strong peg is driven in to tie up a pine tree. When planting tall trees, this is mandatory, and 3 supports are used, driven in by a triangle.
3. A seedling is placed in the center.
4. Check the position of the root collar - it should be flush with the ground or a few centimeters higher.
5. The pit is covered with a substrate, compacted from the edge to the center.
6. Pine is watered abundantly. A bucket of water is consumed for a small seedling. For large specimens, at least 10 liters per linear meter of tree growth will be required.
7. The soil is mulched with peat, rotted wood chips or pine bark.

Scots pine planting scheme

In landscape design, the distance between plants is determined by the project. This is the case when a specialist is involved in landscaping the territory. It takes into account the compatibility of crops, the depth of their roots, the need for nutrients, watering, etc. That is, an experienced landscape designer is able to take into account all the subtleties and nuances of not only the immediate needs of plants, but also how big they will grow will not be whether to interfere with each other after 5, 10 years or more.

It's the same with parks. But it does not happen there that a person from the street is engaged in planning.

What advice can you give to amateurs who plant greenery on their own? Need to know:

1. Tall varieties are located 4 m from each other, for dwarfs the distance is 1-1.5 m.
2. Scots pine loves light and grows quickly. There is no need to worry that tall varieties will be shaded. But next to dwarfs, you should not plant fast-growing crops with a wide crown that can block the sun for them.
3. The pine root is powerful, although in culture it adapts to external conditions. That is, it can be more or less branched, mainly going inland, or spreading to the sides. In any case, over time, closely planted deep-rooted crops will find it difficult to compete with pine - it will simply displace them.
   Important! When planting together, you should not worry about a pine tree, but about a nearby plant.
4. You can not place a culture that requires regular loosening of the soil, especially deep soil, next to the ephedra.
5. When planting pine hedges, they can be placed no closer than 50 cm from each other, and this is only if the variety is erect, similar to a species plant. For trees whose crown resembles a bush, the distance should not be less than 1 m.

Scots pine is one of the main species in activities aimed at reforestation in Europe. They have their own laws of plant placement. Pine trees are planted very close to each other, so that their crowns will close over time.

In this case, the lower branches will die off as soon as the young ones block the sun for them. The tree itself will stretch upward. This will allow you to get even long logs, almost devoid of branches.

Scotch pine care

The main problem in growing Scots pine is anthropogenic pollution. Of course, she cleans the air herself, but there is a certain threshold of gas pollution at which she cannot live long. The rest of the pine is an undemanding crop, with the exception of preventive treatments.It can be left alone for a long time, planted in small-care gardens.

Watering and feeding

Often, ordinary pine is watered only the first time after planting, especially in spring. When the tree takes root, you need to do this several times per season. Watering is increased in hot dry summers for varietal plants.

They are rarely made, but a lot of water is consumed to water the deeply leaving root. At least 10 liters are poured under dwarfs who have not reached a meter. For adult pines, you will need at least a bucket of water for each linear meter of growth.

You need to feed the culture up to 10 years of age twice a season:

• in the spring with fertilizers containing mainly nitrogen;
• in the fall, and in the north - at the end of summer, pines need phosphorus and potassium.

Then, if the tree is in a satisfactory state, feeding can be stopped. But if the condition of Scots pine leaves much to be desired, or it grows in an environmentally unfavorable environment, fertilization should be continued.

Foliar dressing is of great importance for pine. They are called fast, through the needles, nutrients are absorbed immediately, and when applied under the root, the result will be noticeable after weeks. Foliar dressing is done in order to:

• increase pine resistance to stress;
• improve the appearance of the tree;
• to give the culture useful substances that it cannot get through the root.

It is possible to fertilize pine needles simultaneously with treatments for pests and diseases in order to reduce the toxicity of drugs, and if they contain metal oxides - after 7-10 days.

Foliar dressing is done no more than 1 time in 2 weeks.

Mulching and loosening

The soil under the Scots pine is loosened until complete rooting, that is, two seasons, no more. This is done to break up the crust formed after watering or rains, to ensure the supply of oxygen, moisture, nutrients to the root.

For ordinary pine, soil mulching is a mandatory procedure. Especially if the crown is high. The covering layer will protect the soil from drying out, in winter from cold, and in summer it will not allow the root to overheat. It will create favorable conditions for the development of special microflora, prevent germination weeds.

Pruning

It is for the fast-growing Scots pine that formative pruning is of great importance. If it is not carried out, all varieties, with the exception of some dwarf ones, will not be able to reach the peak of decorativeness. Skillfully carried out pruning even from a species of Scots pine will make a unique masterpiece.

It is necessary to pinch or prune trees in the spring, when the young shoot has stopped growing, but the needles have not yet had time to separate from it. The procedure is done with a sharp pruner or garden knife, but most people prefer to use their own nails. True, then you need to wash your hands stained with resin for a long time, but this really turns out faster and more convenient.

Most sources advise pinching off 1/3 of the shoot. But this is optional. The length of the part to be removed depends on the purpose of trimming:

1. A third of the shoot is pinched if they just want to slow down the growth rate of the Scots pine a little and make the crown more lush. In late summer or early autumn, many new buds will form in a circle at the cut site, next spring full-fledged shoots will develop from them.
2. Removing 1/2 of a young branch will significantly slow down growth. The tree will become fluffy, with a tidier crown, thicker and more compact.
3. To form a bonsai-style pine, 2/3 of the shoot is removed.
4. If the growth of the tree needs to be directed in a certain direction, the bud must be broken out completely. This is done when a structure is being built next to a pine tree, and they want to prevent the branch from hitting the wall.

It is interesting that it is not necessary to cover the wound surface with garden varnish. Young shoots of Scots pine secrete a lot of resin containing turpentine, disinfect themselves and cover the cut site.

There is no need to throw away "waste".If you dry the tips of young Scots pine shoots in a well-ventilated place protected from the sun, you can get a good tea supplement containing a lot of useful substances.

Sanitary pruning of common spruce consists of removing dry or broken branches.

Preparing for winter

When planting Scots pine in the recommended frost resistance zone, you need to cover the tree only in the year of planting. In subsequent seasons, they are limited to soil mulching. The layer must be at least 10 cm.

You can increase frost resistance if you feed the pine in the fall with phosphorus-potassium fertilizer. If the autumn is dry, moisture charging is carried out - this increases the resistance of the tree to low temperatures, avoiding frost cracks.

Protection against diseases and pests

In general, Scots pine is a healthy culture. But it is often affected by rust, which is very difficult to fight, especially near industrial centers - polluted air significantly reduces the immunity of the tree. It is because of this fungal disease that the pines stand red and lose their needles.

Among the pests, the already mentioned bud shoot (Evetria turionana), which affects the main shoot, should be mentioned. Because of this, pines grow in curves, otherwise their trunk would be stretched out like a string.

To avoid troubles, preventive treatments are carried out once in the fall, and twice in the spring, dry and broken branches are removed. Pests are fought with insecticides, fungicides will help to defeat diseases.

In order not to stretch the treatment, the preparations can be combined, falling asleep in one container, and adding foliar fertilizers, epin, zircon, humate solution. Only those containing metal oxides, namely copper and iron, are used separately.

Scots pine propagation

Reproduction in nature of the Common Pine occurs with the help of seeds. Nurseries also breed culture. It can be grafted, but the procedure is complicated, and the tree will be short-lived. Scots pine cuttings are not used for reproduction, since their survival rate is extremely low. You can get a new tree from a twig, but it will look like a miracle.

Even varieties are propagated by seeds, and most of the seedlings inherit maternal traits. But this is not a task for amateurs. After all, seed germination is only 20 percent of success. It is much more difficult to bring them before planting in the ground. And this will take at least 4-5 years, no matter what some sources say.

But no one forbids trying. And if you really get down to business, it is better to do everything right. Sowing is carried out in early spring in boxes with drainage holes dug in the street, or directly on the garden bed, having previously changed the soil. The place should be sheltered from the wind and well lit. You need free access to it.

Stratification somewhat increases the germination of pine seeds, but does not significantly affect it. But the risk of damage to the planting material at the slightest mistake is great.

It is better to soak the seeds. Many spears have been broken in disputes over which water to use - ice cold or room temperature. The difference is insignificant. Or you can even put the seeds in a damp, clean cloth for a day.

Damage to the shell is extra work. Scots pine seeds have a protective cover of such density that they do not impede swelling or germination.

It is better to take sand, sandy loam, low-lying peat with sand as a substrate. Hobbyists should sow to a depth of no more than 5 mm. It does not interfere with the growth of shoots. Scots pine seeds are sown in nurseries to a depth of 2 cm. And there is its own technology, controlled irrigation, and equipment inaccessible (or unnecessary) for amateurs.

With shallow seeding, there is a danger of seedling death from overdrying the soil. Water the planting often. The top layer of the soil should not dry out even for a short time.

The seeding rate of Scots pine seeds is 1.5-2 g per linear meter, 2.5-2.7 g per sq. m. This is quite a lot, since 1000 pieces weigh only 5.5 g. It is clear that during the reproduction of Scots pine, the sowing scheme is out of the question.

Quality Scots pine seeds will sprout in 14-20 days. When there are a lot of them, the seedlings are thinned out, leaving 100 pieces. for 1 running meter or square meter.

After the sprouts shed the seed coat and straighten, they are fed with a weak solution of complex fertilizer. Scots pine picking can be carried out at a very young age, when the seedlings reach a height of 3-4 cm, or left in a box until the beginning of the next season. Moreover, they should be regularly fed, since the culture substrate with nutrients is not able to provide due to its composition.

A dive is carried out into light soil with the addition of a large amount of sand. As a container, you can take 100 ml plastic cups, if it is possible to water pine seedlings daily, and in hot summer - several times a day. Containers of 200 ml are taken when the seedlings will be moistened less often. It is imperative to make a hole in them for the outflow of water and put drainage.

Now about shortening the roots. For a seedling 3-4 cm in height, it can reach 10 cm or more, it all depends on the depth of the box. In the ground, the root will definitely be long. What can you do, in pine it is pivotal, and this is manifested from a very early age.

The root can break off when digging seedlings, if not too short, then not scary. Pinch it depending on the depth of the container. You can leave it as it is, or 5-7 cm on a seedling 3-4 cm. With a properly made pick, survival rate is 80% or more. For Scots pine, this is an excellent result.

Seedlings from a small (100 ml) container will have to be transferred to a larger volume in a year or two. Cups of 200 ml should be enough before planting in a permanent place.

Care consists in feeding 1-2 times per season, treatments against pests and diseases, protection from strong and drying winds, regular watering. Of course, pine is an ordinary drought-resistant crop, but if the seedlings are not watered in time, they will die.

Finally, I would like to remind you that it is better to sow pine seeds on the street. If boxes are used for this, they are dug in in a quiet, sunny place. Indoors, seedlings will grow weak and may die after transplanting to a permanent location. Of course, this does not apply to nurseries where the premises are specially adapted.

For the winter, Scots pine seedlings are covered with spruce branches.

Scots pine application

It is difficult to overestimate the Scots pine. It is of great economic importance, is one of the main forest-forming species for Europe, and a valuable decorative species.

Common pine in the national economy

Wood is a cheap and most frequently used building material; it is from it that cellulose is obtained, plywood is made.

Hydrolyzed alcohol is produced from sawdust.

Resin is a valuable raw material for the chemical and medical industry; turpentine, essential oil, and rosin are extracted from it.

Medicines are also made from cones, young shoots and needles.

Even mature needles are used to make a vitamin supplement for livestock feed.

Pine ordinary as a forest-forming species

In Europe and northern Asia, the culture is widely used, especially on sandy soils. It is planted to strengthen slopes, prevent soil erosion, and simply where nothing else will grow.

The common pine can form clean plantings, but does well next to other conifers and deciduous trees.

Common pine in urban landscaping and parks

Here, the importance of culture is not great. This is not due to decorative qualities or the complexity of care.Common pine reacts poorly to air pollution, and in industrial centers or near highways it can quickly die, leaving behind bare dry trunks with branches sticking out to the sides.

The culture is planted on the territory of botanical gardens, inside the park area, where the air has already been purified by other deciduous and coniferous trees. It will grow satisfactorily in those areas of the city where the wind rose does not carry gas from car exhaust and industrial smoke.

Common pine in landscape design

If the ecological situation allows, the culture will become indispensable when landscaping a large area. On a small one, you can plant dwarf varieties.

Even from a fast-growing species tree, it is easy to form a beautiful tree. And skillfully applying pruning of young shoots, you can significantly slow down the rate of spread of the plant upward and make the crown thick.

The common pine is planted as a specimen in landscape groups. Depending on the variety, it can favorably emphasize the beauty of other crops, or focus on itself.

Conclusion

Common Pine is a valuable crop for decorative landscaping, drought-resistant, undemanding to soil and maintenance. It would be used much more widely with better tolerance to air pollution.

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